The Kingdom of the Pharaohs
The Egyptian civilization is one of the oldest in the world. Around 3100 BC, King Narmer (also known as Menes) united Upper and Lower Egypt for the first time — the beginning of a 3,000-year high culture unparalleled in history.
Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) — The Pyramid Age
The era of the great pyramids: Pharaoh Djoser commissioned the first pyramid (Step Pyramid of Saqqara), his architect Imhotep is considered the first architect known by name in history. Under Cheops (Khufu), Chephren, and Mykerinos, the pyramids of Giza were built — structures of such precision that they continue to inspire admiration today. Society was strictly hierarchical: The pharaoh was both king and god, supported by a powerful priesthood and an efficient bureaucracy.
Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 BC) — The Classical Period
A time of cultural flourishing: Egyptian literature reached its peak (the "Story of Sinuhe" is considered the oldest novel in the world), the irrigation system in Fayum was expanded, and trade extended to Crete and Nubia. The capital was Thebes (modern-day Luxor). The Hyksos — a Semitic people from the east — eventually conquered Lower Egypt and ended the era.
New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC) — The Golden Age
The most famous epoch: The pharaohs of the New Kingdom created an empire that stretched from Nubia to Syria. The greatest names: Hatshepsut (the female pharaoh who ruled as a man), Thutmose III (the "Napoleon of Egypt," greatest military leader), Akhenaten (the heretic pharaoh who introduced monotheism and built Amarna), Tutankhamun (the boy king whose tomb treasure electrified the world), Ramses II (the builder, 67 years on the throne, Abu Simbel, Karnak) and Ramses III (the last great pharaoh). During this time, the Valley of the Kings, the Karnak Temple, and most of the monuments visited today were constructed.
Late Period, Ptolemies & Cleopatra
After the New Kingdom, periods of foreign rule followed: Libyans, Nubians, Persians. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and founded Alexandria. After his death, his general Ptolemy took control — the Ptolemaic dynasty ruled for 300 years and fused Greek and Egyptian culture. Cleopatra VII (69–30 BC) was the last Ptolemaic ruler — her liaisons with Caesar and Mark Antony and her tragic suicide ended the pharaonic era once and for all. In 30 BC, Egypt became a Roman province.