Land & People

Chile's history is a tale of resistance, upheaval, and renewal — shaped by the power of nature and the indomitable will of its people.

Before the Colonial Era

Long before the Spaniards, the Mapuche (Araucanians) inhabited central and southern Chile — one of the few indigenous peoples in the Americas that never fully succumbed. Neither the Incas nor the Spaniards could permanently defeat the Mapuche. In the north lived the Atacameño and Aymara, whose traces can still be found in the Atacama Desert today.

Spanish Colonial Period (1541–1818)

Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago de Chile in 1541. The Mapuche offered fierce resistance — the Arauco War lasted over 300 years and was one of the longest conflicts in history. The Spaniards eventually retreated behind the Río Bío-Bío and de facto recognized an independent Mapuche territory.

Independence & 19th Century

1818 saw Chile declare independence under Bernardo O'Higgins. The 19th century brought the War of the Pacific (1879–1884) against Peru and Bolivia, through which Chile gained the Atacama region — and Bolivia lost its access to the sea (a contentious issue to this day). German, Croatian, and British immigrants shaped the south.

Allende, Pinochet & the Return to Democracy

In 1970, Salvador Allende was inaugurated as the world's first democratically elected socialist president. On September 11, 1973, the military under General Augusto Pinochet staged a coup — Allende died in the bombed presidential palace La Moneda. This was followed by a 17-year military dictatorship (1973–1990) characterized by systematic torture, disappearances, and murder: Over 3,000 people were killed, tens of thousands tortured and imprisoned.

In 1988, Pinochet lost a referendum on his continued rule — a historic moment vividly depicted in the film “No!". In 1990, Chile returned to democracy. The reckoning with the dictatorship is still ongoing — Santiago's Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos (Museum of Memory and Human Rights) tells the story impressively.

The Chilean Society

Chile is South America's model student — at least on paper: The country has the highest per capita income, the lowest corruption rate, and the best education system on the continent. But beneath the shiny surface, there is unrest: Chile is one of the most unequal countries in the world. The social unrest of 2019 (Estallido Social) showed how wide the gap between rich and poor is.

Chileans are friendly but more reserved than other Latin Americans — a legacy of European immigration and the country's long isolation. Once they warm up, however, they are incredibly warm-hearted, hospitable, and humorous. Humor in Chile is dark, dry, and quick — like the Pisco Sour.

Clasismo — Chile's Open Secret

The biggest social issue in Chile is Clasismo — class consciousness and social discrimination deeply rooted in Chilean society. Chileans can determine the social class of their counterpart based on their surname, school, neighborhood, and even the way they speak. The upper class attends private schools (Colegios Particulares), lives in the eastern neighborhoods of Santiago (Las Condes, Vitacura, Lo Barnechea), and speaks a more elegant Spanish. The lower class lives in the west and south of the city, attends public schools, and has significantly fewer opportunities for advancement.

This class system is the backdrop for the social protests of 2019 (Estallido Social), which began in response to a metro fare increase but quickly became the largest protest movement since the end of the dictatorship. “No son 30 pesos, son 30 años" (It's not about 30 Pesos, it's about 30 years) became the slogan — 30 years of pent-up inequality since the return to democracy.

Once — Chile's Mysterious Dinner

One of Chile's most surprising traditions: The Once (literally: “Eleven", pronounced “ON-seh"). Instead of a proper dinner, many Chilean families sit down in the early evening (5–7 pm) for a kind of extended teatime: Bread (Pan Amasado, often homemade), avocado, jam, cheese, ham, and tea. There are two theories about the origin of the name: Either from the time (11 o'clock, as a traditional snack time) or — the more popular version — because “Aguardiente" (a type of liquor) has eleven letters and workers hid their secret afternoon drink behind the euphemism “Let's have an Once".

For German travelers, the Once is a familiar concept — it resembles the Abendbrot. In many hostels and simple hotels, an Once is served instead of a warm dinner.

Fiestas Patrias — The Soul of the Nation

The Fiestas Patrias on September 18–19 are Chile's most important celebration — more important than Christmas, many Chileans say. The festivities unofficially last a whole week (the “Semana Dieciochera") and consist of:

• Fondas: Temporary festival huts (like German beer tents) in every park and square in the country. Here, people dance, eat, and drink
• Cueca: The official national dance — a couple dance with handkerchiefs, representing the rooster's courtship of the hen. All schoolchildren learn it
• Asado: Grilling is a must. Whole neighborhoods come together
• Empanadas: Mandatory on September 18 — the Empanada de Pino is the symbol of the national holiday
• Chicha and Terremoto: Traditional drinks. The Terremoto (earthquake cocktail) made from sweet Pipeño wine with pineapple ice cream and grenadine tastes harmless but hits hard
• Elevantamiento de Volantines: Kite flying — children and adults fly colorful kites

Anyone in Chile during the Fiestas Patrias experiences the country at its most authentic — but beware: Everything is closed, buses and flights are fully booked, and prices rise.

The Mapuche — Chile's Indigenous Heritage

The Mapuche are Chile's largest indigenous group with 1.7 million people (about 10% of the population) — a people who have preserved their identity despite centuries of oppression. Their name means “People of the Earth" (Mapu = Earth, Che = People).

The relationship between the Mapuche and the Chilean state remains tense: After independence, the Mapuche territory in the south was violently colonized (Ocupación de la Araucanía, 1861–1883), and land conflicts continue to smolder. In the Araucanía region (around Temuco), there are regular protests, land occupations, and clashes. The Chilean military long used the Anti-Terrorism Law against the Mapuche — a legacy of the Pinochet dictatorship, which has been internationally criticized.

The Mapuche culture lives on in their language (Mapudungun), their medicine (Machis — shamanic healers who practice plant medicine and spiritual rituals), their music (Trutruca — a long wind instrument, Kultrun — a ceremonial drum), their textiles (geometric patterns with symbolic meaning), and their cosmology, which emphasizes a deep connection to the earth and its cycles.

For travelers: In the Lake District around Pucón and Temuco, Mapuche communities increasingly offer cultural experiences — traditional cooking, weaving workshops, guided walks through sacred forests, and Ngillatun ceremonies (by invitation). This respectful form of cultural tourism is organized by the communities themselves and is a wonderful way to learn about Chile's indigenous heritage.

German Immigrants in Chile

From 1846, the Chilean government actively promoted German immigration to the south of the country — then still uninhabited and covered by dense rainforest. Thousands of Germans, Austrians, and German-Swiss settled between Valdivia and Puerto Montt and left a lasting impact on the region:

• Architecture: Half-timbered houses in Frutillar, Puerto Varas, and Valdivia reminiscent of southern German villages
• Beer: The Kunstmann brewery in Valdivia, founded in 1851, remains one of the best in Chile. The Cervecería D'Olbek (Osorno) also has German roots
• Cakes: The “Küchen" (cakes) of the region — apple strudel, crumble cake, Black Forest cake — are a living legacy of the immigrants
• Language: In some families, German is still spoken. The “German School" (Colegio Alemán) exists in several cities
• Agriculture: The German settlers cleared the rainforest and turned the region into Chile's breadbasket. Dairy farming and cheese production also have German roots

The dark side: Among the immigrants was Paul Schäfer, a German ex-Nazi who founded the Colonia Dignidad in 1961 — a secluded sect in southern Chile that became a torture facility during the Pinochet dictatorship. Hundreds of Chileans were tortured and murdered there. Schäfer was arrested in Argentina in 2005 and died in Chilean custody in 2010. The Netflix film “Colonia" (2015) starring Emma Watson tells part of this story.

Immigration & Modern Society

Since the 2010s, Chile has experienced a new wave of migration: Haitians, Venezuelans, Colombians, and Peruvians now make up almost 10% of the population. This migration has changed Chilean society — new cuisines (Haitian, Venezuelan food), new music, new cultures. At the same time, there are tensions: Racism and discrimination against dark-skinned migrants are a growing problem.

Earthquakes — Living with Nature

Chile is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire and is the most earthquake-prone country in the world. The strongest earthquake ever recorded (9.5 on the Richter scale) occurred in 1960 in Valdivia — it triggered a tsunami that reached as far as Japan. The 2010 quake (8.8) hit central Chile and caused massive damage. Chileans live with earthquakes like Germans with rain — calmly and prepared. Buildings are constructed to be earthquake-resistant, and every child learns emergency procedures at school.

Earthquake Safety Guidelines

• During the quake: Seek shelter under a stable table or door frame. DO NOT run outside (debris!). Stay calm
• After the quake: Leave the building. If on the coast: IMMEDIATELY move to higher ground (tsunami risk!). In Chile, the rule is: If the quake is so strong that you can't stand → take tsunami warnings seriously
• Hotels: Every hotel has evacuation plans and marked exits. Familiarize yourself with them upon check-in

1973–1990: The Darkest Years

The military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990) is the most traumatic chapter in Chilean history and continues to have repercussions today. On September 11, 1973 — a date that holds a completely different significance in Chile than in the USA — the Chilean Air Force bombed the presidential palace La Moneda, where the democratically elected socialist president Salvador Allende had barricaded himself. Allende died (whether by suicide or murder remains disputed), and Pinochet seized power.

What followed was a systematic regime of terror:

• Over 3,200 people were murdered or “disappeared" (Detenidos Desaparecidos)
• Over 40,000 people were tortured — in the Estadio Nacional de Chile (where soccer is played today), in Villa Grimaldi, and in secret torture centers across the country
• 200,000 Chileans fled into exile — many to Germany (the Chilean community in Berlin-Kreuzberg still exists today)
• The DINA (secret police) operated internationally: Former Chilean army commander General Carlos Prats was murdered in Buenos Aires in 1974, diplomat Orlando Letelier in Washington D.C. in 1976
• The Colonia Dignidad — a sect founded by German ex-Nazi Paul Schäfer in southern Chile — served as a torture center for the DINA

At the same time, Pinochet implemented a radically neoliberal economic policy (designed by the “Chicago Boys", Chilean economists who studied at the University of Chicago): Privatization of health, education, pensions, water, and even roads. This economic order brought growth but also extreme inequality, which continues to have effects today.

The Return to Democracy

1988 saw Pinochet lose a self-imposed referendum (Plebiscito) on his continued rule — the film “No!" (2012) starring Gael García Bernal tells this story vividly. In 1990, Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin became the first democratic president after the dictatorship.

The reckoning is still not complete: The Rettig Commission and the Valech Commission documented the crimes, but many perpetrators were never punished. Pinochet himself died in 2006, never having been convicted — although the arrest warrant issued by Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón in 1998 in London caused a stir.

Memorial Sites

• Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos (Santiago): The most important dictatorship museum in Chile. Harrowing, brilliantly curated, a must-visit. Free admission
• Villa Grimaldi (Santiago): Former DINA torture center, now a peace park and memorial. Free
• Estadio Nacional: In September 1973, thousands of political prisoners were rounded up and tortured here. A memorial plaque commemorates this
• Estadio Víctor Jara: Formerly Estadio Chile — where singer Víctor Jara was tortured and murdered. Now named after him

October 2019 — Chile Erupts

On October 18, 2019, the Estallido Social (social explosion) began — the largest protest movement in Chile since the end of the dictatorship. The trigger was trivial: a metro fare increase of 30 Pesos (4 cents). The reaction was anything but trivial: Millions of Chileans took to the streets to protest against 30 years of pent-up inequality, privatization, and social injustice.

The slogan “No son 30 pesos, son 30 años" (It's not about 30 Pesos, it's about 30 years) summed up what it was really about: The neoliberal economic system introduced by Pinochet had remained largely unchanged even after 30 years of democracy. Health, education, and pensions were privatized and unaffordable for many Chileans.

The protests were both peaceful and violent: Millions marched peacefully, but there were also looting, arson (metro stations were destroyed), and severe police violence. Over 400 demonstrators lost an eye to rubber bullets. Plaza Italia in Santiago was renamed Plaza de la Dignidad (Dignity Square) — a symbol of the protest that remains alive today.

The result: A constitutional referendum in October 2020, where 78% of Chileans voted for a new constitution (the old one dated back to the Pinochet era). The first draft of the constitution was rejected in 2022, a second in 2023 as well — Chile continues to search for its path.

For travelers, the Estallido Social is primarily visible through street art: In Santiago, Valparaíso, and other cities, murals tell of the protests, the victims, and the hopes for a fairer Chile.

A Land of Extremes

Chile's geography is unique in the world: 4,300 km long, but on average only 180 km wide. The country stretches from 17° to 56° southern latitude — equivalent in Europe to a distance from the Sahara to northern Norway. This extreme expanse creates a diversity of ecosystems that exist in no other country on Earth in such close proximity.

The Andes — Chile's Backbone

The Andean Cordillera forms Chile's eastern border and backbone: Over 6,000-meter-high volcanoes in the north (the Ojos del Salado, 6,893 m, is the highest active volcano on Earth), glaciated peaks in the middle, and rugged fjord landscapes in the south. The Andes are the reason for Chile's climatic diversity — they block moist air from the east and create everything from desert to rainforest.

Chile has over 2,000 volcanoes, about 500 of which are considered potentially active. The most famous active volcanoes: Villarrica (constantly smoking, climbable), Llaima (one of the most active in South America), Calbuco (spectacular eruption in 2015), and Chaitén (almost destroyed a town in 2008).

The Atacama — Driest Place on Earth

In the heart of the Atacama Desert, there are places where it has never rained — not in living memory, not since measurements began, possibly not for millions of years. The extreme dryness is caused by a unique combination: The cold Humboldt Current off the coast cools the air and prevents evaporation, the Andes block moist air from the Amazon basin, and the Subtropical High Pressure Belt pushes dry air downward. The result: a Mars on Earth.

Valdivian Rainforest — The Ancient Forests of the South

An often overlooked natural wonder of Chile: The Valdivian rainforest in the south (between the 38th and 48th latitude) is among the temperate rainforests of the world — an ecosystem rarer than tropical rainforest. Giant Alerce trees (Patagonian cypresses, up to 60 m high and 3,600 years old!), Coigüe trees, Nalca giant rhubarb, and a dense undergrowth of lichens and mosses form a mystical, primeval forest.

The Valdivian rainforest is home to unique animal species: the Pudú (the smallest deer in the world, only 40 cm tall!), the Monito del Monte (a living fossil — the only marsupial in South America outside Australia!), and the Darwin's frog (which broods its tadpoles in its mouth).

Patagonian Steppe — The Vastness at the End of the World

Between the Andes and the Atlantic stretches the Patagonian steppe: An endless, treeless grassland swept by the notorious Patagonian wind. The vegetation consists of tough grasses (Coirón), Calafate bushes, and Notro shrubs. The steppe may seem monotonous at first glance, but it is home to guanacos, rheas, armadillos, foxes, and — in Torres del Paine — the highest puma density in the world.

The Southern Ice Field — Third Largest Ice Mass on Earth

The Campo de Hielo Sur (Southern Patagonian Ice Field) covers 13,000 km² and is the third largest contiguous ice field on Earth after Antarctica and Greenland. It feeds 49 large glaciers that calve into lakes and fjords. The ice field is shrinking alarmingly fast due to climate change — scientists estimate that some of the glaciers could disappear within the next few decades.

Marine Ecosystems — 4,300 km of Coastline

Chile's coast is dominated by the Humboldt Current — a cold ocean current that brings nutrient-rich deep water to the surface and creates one of the most productive marine ecosystems in the world. The result: vast fish stocks, kelp forests, sea lion colonies, blue whale migration routes, and penguin colonies.

• Blue Whales: The largest animals ever to have lived on Earth migrate through Chilean waters — especially in the Gulf of Corcovado (between Chiloé and the mainland)
• Humboldt Penguins: Thousands of penguins live alongside dolphins and sea lions in the Reserva Nacional Pingüino de Humboldt (near La Serena)
• Sea Otters (Chungungo): Chile's sea otters live along the coast and in the southern channels — they are smaller and rarer than their North American relatives

Easter Island (Rapa Nui)

Easter Island lies 3,700 km off the Chilean coast in the middle of the Pacific and is the most remote inhabited island in the world. The enigmatic Moai statues (almost 900 gigantic stone heads, up to 10 meters high and 82 tons heavy) were created by the Rapa Nui between 1250 and 1500. The quarries at the Rano Raraku volcano show unfinished Moai in all stages of production — a fascinating window into the past.

The history of Easter Island is also an ecological warning: The Rapa Nui deforested their entire island (presumably for transporting the Moai), leading to the collapse of their civilization. When Europeans arrived in 1722, they found an impoverished population on a barren island. Since 1995, a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Getting there: Flight from Santiago (5.5h, LATAM, from 200€ return). Stay max. 30 days, return ticket and hotel reservation required upon entry.

Chile's National Parks — An Overview

Chile has 42 national parks, protecting over 14 million hectares — an impressive commitment to conservation. The parks are managed by CONAF (Corporación Nacional Forestal). Entrance fees for foreigners range from 3,000 to 26,000 CLP depending on the park and season.

The Ruta de los Parques (Route of the Parks) connects 17 national parks over 2,800 km — from Puerto Montt to Cape Horn. It is the longest national park route in the world and was made possible by the Tompkins Foundation.