History of Mexico

The Maya created one of humanity's most fascinating civilizations — and did so without metal tools, the wheel, or draft animals. Their peak (Classical Period, 250–900 AD) produced monumental cities: Palenque, Tikal, Calakmul, Copán.

Achievements

• Writing: The only fully developed writing system in pre-Columbian America — over 800 glyphs, fully deciphered only in the 1970s.
• Astronomy: The Maya calendar was more accurate than the European Julian calendar. They calculated Venus cycles to the minute.
• Mathematics: Invention of zero — centuries before the Europeans.
• Architecture: Pyramids that are astronomically precisely aligned (Kukulkán Pyramid: serpent shadow at the equinox).

Around 900 AD, most of the classic Maya cities in the lowlands collapsed — likely due to a combination of drought, overpopulation, and war. However, the Maya did not disappear: Their descendants (about 6 million in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize) live on today, preserving languages and traditions.

In Yucatán, the Maya civilization experienced a second bloom: Chichén Itzá (900–1200 AD) and Uxmal emerged in this post-classical era, influenced by the central Mexican Toltec empire.

The Mexica (whom we call "Aztecs") founded their capital Tenochtitlán in 1325 on an island in Lake Texcoco — exactly where they saw an eagle eating a snake on a cactus (now on the Mexican flag). This swampy island became one of the largest cities in the world in just 200 years: 200,000–300,000 inhabitants, magnificent temples, aqueducts, causeways, and markets.

The Aztec Empire

• Expansion: Through war and a tribute system, the Aztecs controlled most of central Mexico by 1500 — over 5 million subjects paid tribute in gold, cocoa, feathers, textiles.
• Human Sacrifice: The Aztecs practiced ritual human sacrifice on a large scale — the exact number is disputed (Spanish sources likely exaggerated), but it was a central part of their cosmology: The gods needed human blood to keep the sun moving.
• Flower Wars: Ritualized wars whose main purpose was the capture of warriors for sacrifices — no killing on the battlefield.
• Culture: Poetry (Nezahualcóyotl was a famous poet-king), botanical gardens, compulsory education for all children, a sophisticated legal system.

The Aztec ruler Moctezuma II. initially received Hernán Cortés as a guest in 1519 — a mistake that led to the destruction of the empire.

On April 22, 1519, Hernán Cortés landed on the coast of Veracruz with 500 soldiers, 16 horses, and a few cannons. Within just two years, he destroyed the most powerful empire in Mesoamerica — one of the most dramatic episodes in world history.

How was this possible?

• Allies: The subjugated peoples (Tlaxcaltecs, Totonacs) hated the Aztecs and joined Cortés. In the final battle for Tenochtitlán, 200,000 indigenous allies fought on the Spanish side.
• Smallpox: The Europeans brought diseases against which the natives had no immunity. Smallpox killed an estimated 80–90% of the indigenous population within a century — the greatest demographic catastrophe in human history.
• Technology: Steel swords, crossbows, cannons, and horses (unknown in Mesoamerica) gave the Spaniards an advantage.
• La Malinche: An indigenous woman who served as Cortés's translator and advisor (and became his lover). In Mexico, "Malinchismo" is still a derogatory term for someone who betrays their own in favor of the foreign.

On August 13, 1521, Tenochtitlán fell after 75 days of siege. The Spaniards systematically destroyed the city and built Mexico City on its ruins — the cathedral stands on the foundations of the Aztec main temple. Three centuries of the Viceroyalty of New Spain followed (1535–1821).

On September 16, 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo called for an uprising against the Spaniards in the small town of Dolores — the famous Grito de Dolores (now a national holiday). This was followed by 11 years of the War of Independence, until Mexico was finally free in 1821.

The Turbulent 19th Century

• Mexican-American War (1846–1848): Mexico lost half of its territory to the USA — California, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado. A national trauma that still resonates today.
• Emperor Maximilian (1864–1867): Napoleon III sent the Habsburg Maximilian I. as emperor to Mexico — supported by Mexican conservatives. The liberal president Benito Juárez (a Zapotec from Oaxaca!) defeated the French. Maximilian was executed in Querétaro in 1867. Juárez is Mexico's national hero.
• Porfiriato (1876–1911): 35 years of dictatorship under Porfirio Díaz. Modernization (railroads, electricity), but at the expense of the rural population: large landowners controlled 97% of the land.

The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)

One of the bloodiest revolutions in history (1–2 million dead). The major figures:

• Francisco Madero: Instigator of the Revolution, first democratic president, assassinated in 1913.
• Emiliano Zapata: The peasant leader from the south. His battle cry "Tierra y Libertad!" (Land and Freedom) is still alive today. Assassinated in an ambush in 1919.
• Pancho Villa: The charismatic bandit/revolutionary from the north. Invaded the USA in 1916 (the only invasion of the USA after 1812). Assassinated in 1923.

The Revolution led to the Constitution of 1917 and the founding of the PRI (Party of the Institutional Revolution), which ruled Mexico for 71 years uninterrupted (1929–2000) — the longest one-party rule in a democracy.

Modern Mexico is a country of contradictions: the 15th-largest economy in the world and at the same time a country with enormous inequality. Some milestones:

• 2000: First democratic transition of power — the PRI loses the presidency to Vicente Fox (PAN) after 71 years.
• 2006–2012: President Calderón declares the "war on drugs". The result: over 350,000 deaths and 100,000 disappeared to date. Cartel violence mainly affects the north (Tamaulipas, Sinaloa, Michoacán) and less the tourist regions.
• 2018: Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) wins with 53% — the largest electoral victory since the Revolution. Left-populist course: social programs, megaprojects (Tren Maya, Dos Bocas refinery), militarization of public security.
• 2024: Claudia Sheinbaum becomes Mexico's first female president — physicist, former mayor of CDMX, continuation of the AMLO course.

For travelers, it is important to understand: Mexico is not a failed state. The tourist infrastructure is excellent, the people warm-hearted, and the culture vibrant. The security problems are concentrated in certain regions and rarely affect tourists — but caution is advised (→ Practical Info).