Land & People
History at a Glance
Oman has one of the oldest and most fascinating histories in the Arab world — shaped by seafaring, trade, and a unique spirit of independence.
Ancient Seafarers & Frankincense Trade
As early as 5,000 years ago, the Omani coast was a center of maritime trade. Ancient Magan (the old name for Oman) supplied copper to the civilizations of Mesopotamia — cuneiform tablets from Sumer (present-day Iraq) mention Magan as an important trading partner. But the true wealth came from the south: Frankincense (Luban) from the Boswellia trees of the Dhofar Mountains was more valuable than gold in the ancient world.
The dimensions of the frankincense trade were enormous:
- Egypt: Pharaoh Hatshepsut sent an expedition in 1500 BC to the "Land of Punt" (probably Dhofar) to procure frankincense. In the temples of Luxor and Karnak, tons burned daily
- Rome: Emperor Nero is said to have burned the annual frankincense yield of an entire country at the funeral of his wife Poppaea. Pliny the Elder wrote that the frankincense trade made "Arabia the richest land on earth"
- The Three Wise Men: Frankincense as a gift for the Christ child — a testament to its enormous value in the ancient world
- Caravan Routes: The Frankincense Road ran over 2,000 km from Dhofar through the desert to Petra (Jordan) and Gaza. Camels transported the resin for months through the most dangerous desert in the world
Today, the frankincense trade is economically insignificant but culturally vibrant: In every Omani household, there is a Mabkhara (incense burner) with glowing frankincense, and the scent permeates the entire country — a 5,000-year-old tradition that has never been interrupted.
The Ibadis — Oman's Own Path
In the 7th century AD, Oman adopted Ibadism — a unique branch of Islam that is neither Sunni nor Shia (→ see Society). The Ibadis elected their Imams (religious leaders) based on merit, not lineage — a proto-democratic principle that set Oman apart from its neighbors. To this day, Oman is the only Ibadi-dominated country in the world.
The Ibadis — Oman's Own Path in Islam
In the 7th century AD, Oman adopted Ibadism — a unique branch of Islam that is neither Sunni nor Shia. The Ibadis elected their Imams (religious leaders) based on merit, not lineage — a proto-democratic principle that set Oman apart from its neighbors and to this day makes it the only Ibadi-dominated country in the world. The impacts are profound: Omani society is more tolerant, pragmatic, and less dogmatic than most Arab neighbors — a direct legacy of Ibadi thinking.
Omani Maritime Empire (16th–19th Century)
From the 16th century, Oman built a maritime empire that was among the most powerful in the Indian Ocean. The history reads like an adventure novel:
- 1507–1650: The Portuguese occupied Muscat and built the forts Jalali and Mirani. Imam Nasir bin Murshid and his successor Sultan bin Saif expelled them after 143 years
- 1698: The Omanis conquered Zanzibar and parts of the East African coast (Mombasa, Dar es Salaam)
- 1832: Sultan Said bin Sultan moved his capital to Zanzibar — Oman controlled the spice trade, ivory trade, and (shamefully) the slave trade in the Indian Ocean
- 1856: After Said's death, the empire was divided: Zanzibar and Oman became separate sultanates. The beginning of the decline
Isolation & Sultan Qaboos' Revolution (1970)
In the 20th century, Oman sank into isolation and backwardness under Sultan Said bin Taimur (1932–1970). The numbers are almost unbelievable:
| Oman 1970 | Details |
|---|---|
| Schools | 3 (three!) in the entire country — only for boys |
| Hospitals | 0 (zero) — a single doctor in the country |
| Paved Roads | 10 km (ten kilometers) |
| Vehicles | Less than 1,000 |
| Life Expectancy | 49 years |
| Literacy | Under 5% |
Sultan Said practically banned everything: foreign travel, glasses, music, bicycles, books. Anyone caught on the street after 9 PM without a lantern could be arrested. The country lived de facto in the Middle Ages — while next door Dubai was already extracting oil.
On July 23, 1970, Said's own son Qaboos bin Said overthrew his father in a bloodless palace coup. Qaboos, 29 years old, trained at Sandhurst (British military academy) and raised under house arrest by his own father, began the Renaissance of Oman. In just 50 years, he transformed a country without infrastructure into a modern state:
| Oman 1970 | Oman 2020 |
|---|---|
| 3 Schools | 1,000+ schools, 30 colleges, Sultan Qaboos University |
| 0 Hospitals | 70+ hospitals, modern healthcare system |
| 10 km Road | 60,000+ km road network (highway quality!) |
| No Electricity | 100% nationwide electricity supply |
| 5% Literacy | 95% Literacy |
| 49 Years Life Expectancy | 78 Years Life Expectancy |
And all this, without destroying tradition. Sultan Qaboos decreed that every building must have traditional architectural elements, that the Dishdasha remains mandatory in public service, and that Omani culture is preserved in every modernization. No other country in the world has achieved such a transformation in such a short time — while preserving its identity.
Sultan Qaboos died on January 10, 2020. Hundreds of thousands of Omanis wept in the streets — a spontaneous mourning that was not staged but genuine. He left behind a stable, modern state and is revered by the Omanis in a way that is unique in the Arab world. His successor, Sultan Haitham bin Tarik (his cousin), continues his path and advances Vision 2040.
Society & Ibadism
Ibadism — Oman's Peaceful Special Position
Oman is the only country in the world where Ibadism is the predominant faith — and this has profoundly shaped the country. Ibadism emerged in the 7th century as a third stream of Islam (besides Sunnism and Shiism) and is characterized by remarkable principles:
- Tolerance: Ibadis consider Sunnis and Shias as brothers in faith, not enemies. "No Muslim is an unbeliever" is an Ibadi principle. This explains why Oman has never been involved in the Sunni-Shia conflicts of the region
- Modesty: Ostentation and bragging are considered reprehensible. Omani mosques are simple and elegant — no gold kitsch like in some neighboring countries
- Meritocracy: The Imam (religious leader) is elected based on worthiness, not lineage. A revolutionary concept in the 7th century
- Neutrality: Oman is diplomatically neutral and has been mediating regional conflicts (Iran-USA, Yemen, Israel) for decades. This neutrality is deeply rooted in Ibadi thinking
- Practical Piety: Ibadis place more value on lived piety than on theological disputes. "The deed counts more than the confession" is a guiding principle. This explains the pragmatic, undogmatic character of Omani society
What Ibadism Means for Tourists
Practically: The Ibadi influence makes Oman one of the most tolerant and relaxed countries in the Islamic world. No religious police, no strict gender segregation, no public pressure to believe. Churches (there are several in Muscat), Hindu temples, and even a Sikh gurdwara exist without problems. Women drive cars, work as ministers, and go unveiled. Alcohol is available in hotels. This openness is not Westernization — it is deeply rooted in Ibadi thinking and has existed since the 7th century.
Sultan Qaboos' Legacy
Sultan Qaboos bin Said (1940–2020) is the most important figure in Omani history. He transformed not only the infrastructure but also the society:
- Education: From 3 schools (1970) to over 1,000 schools and 30 colleges
- Health: From 0 hospitals to a modern healthcare system
- Women's Rights: Omani women can study, work, drive, and vote — significantly more progressive than in Saudi Arabia or the UAE
- Omanization: The program to replace foreign workers with Omanis — a balancing act between modernization and national identity
Traditional Clothing
In Oman, most men still wear the traditional Dishdasha — an ankle-length, usually white garment, completed with an intricately embroidered Kumma (round cap) or a Mussar (turban). At formal occasions, the Khanjar is added — a ceremonial, curved silver dagger worn at the belt and the national symbol of Oman (it also adorns the national flag).
Omani women often wear an Abaya (black cloak) over their clothing in public and sometimes a face veil — but this is not mandatory, and in cities, Western clothing is increasingly seen.
Tipp
The Omanis are extraordinarily proud of Sultan Qaboos — speak of him with respect. Criticism of the monarchy is legally prohibited and socially taboo. On the positive side: If you praise Sultan Qaboos, you will immediately receive a warm smile and often be drawn into a long, heartfelt conversation.
Dishdasha, Kumma & Khanjar — The Omani Attire
The traditional clothing is not a relic in Oman — it is everyday life. Over 90% of Omani men wear the Dishdasha in public life. What you need to know:
Dishdasha
The ankle-length, straight-cut garment is usually white (in summer), but can also be in pastel shades (light blue, beige, gray — in winter). A tassel (Furakha) hangs from the collar, which is perfumed — a subtle scent accompanies Oman everywhere. The Dishdasha is tailor-made by the tailor (from 5 OMR) and is surprisingly comfortable in the heat: The loose cut allows air circulation, and the white reflects the sun.
Kumma
The round, flat cap is the daily headgear. Each Kumma is intricately embroidered — the patterns vary from region to region and from simple (everyday) to elaborate (festive days). A high-quality Kumma can take several weeks to make by hand and cost 20–50 OMR.
Mussar
The turban made from a long cloth is worn at formal occasions instead of the Kumma. The way it is wrapped reveals the region and status of the wearer. At state events, the Mussar is mandatory.
Khanjar
The curved silver dagger is the national symbol of Oman and adorns the flag and state emblem. At weddings, national holidays, and formal occasions, it is worn on the embroidered belt in front of the abdomen. The quality ranges from a simple souvenir (5 OMR) to a hand-forged masterpiece with a rhinoceros horn handle and engraved silver sheath (up to 5,000 OMR). The Khanjar is not a weapon — it is a work of art and status symbol.
Women
Omani women usually dress in public in an Abaya (black, floor-length cloak) over their actual clothing. Underneath, many wear colorful, richly embroidered dresses — this splendor is revealed at weddings and festivals. The face veil (Burqa) is mainly worn by older women and is not mandatory. Younger Omani women often wear a Hijab (headscarf) with fashionable clothing.
Greeting Rituals & Hospitality
Omani hospitality is legendary — and the greeting is a ritual that may surprise you as a Westerner at first: It can last up to 5 minutes.
The Omani Greeting — Step by Step
- As-Salamu Alaykum (Peace be upon you) — the basic formula
- Kif halak? (How are you?) — sincerely meant, not rhetorical
- Kif al-ahal? (How is your family?) — family is the top priority
- Kif as-sihha? (How is the health?) — further inquiry
- Al-Hamdu lillah, zain (Thank God, good) — the answer to almost everything
Each question is answered with counter-questions. A conversation between two Omanis who see each other again after some time can easily consist of 5 minutes of just greeting formulas. As a tourist, you are not expected to master all this — but a heartfelt "As-Salamu Alaykum" with the right hand on your heart will immediately earn you respect and sympathy.
Nose Kiss (Khashm)
Among close friends and relatives, Omani men greet each other with a nose kiss: The tips of the noses are pressed together two to three times. As a tourist, you will rarely experience this — but if an Omani offers it to you, it is a sign of great appreciation.
Hospitality in Practice
- Kahwa & Dates: Offered in almost every situation — in the hotel, in the shop, during a random encounter. Refusing the first cup is impolite. To avoid getting another, gently shake the cup back and forth
- Food: If you are invited to eat, say yes! You will be served more food than you can ever eat. This is intentional — an empty table would be a disgrace for the host
- Counter-invitation: You don't have to invite back immediately, but the gesture is appreciated. A small gift (sweets, toys for the children) is perfect
Vision 2040 — The Future of Oman
Since the death of Sultan Qaboos in 2020, Sultan Haitham bin Tarik continues the modernization of Oman — with a clear plan: Oman Vision 2040. The goal: To make Oman independent of oil before the reserves are depleted.
The Challenge
Oman has significantly less oil than its neighbors (estimated reserves last for 20–25 years) and less money than the UAE or Saudi Arabia. This necessitates faster and smarter diversification:
The Pillars of Vision 2040
- Tourism: From 3 million (2019) to 11 million visitors annually. New hotels, infrastructure, and events. Oman positions itself as a premium alternative destination to Dubai — more authentic, nature-oriented, quieter
- Logistics: The port of Duqm (on the east coast) is being expanded into a huge industrial port — China's "New Silk Road" uses Oman as a bridgehead
- Renewable Energies: Huge solar and wind farms in the desert. Green hydrogen as an export product
- Fishing & Aquaculture: The 3,165 km coastline is to be used more economically
- Omanization: Integrating more Omanis into the labor market (currently about 45% of the population are foreign workers)
For tourists, Vision 2040 means: Better infrastructure, more hotels, new attractions — but also potential changes to places that are still untouched today. Those who want to experience Oman in its current, perfect balance of modernity and tradition should not wait too long.
Nature & Wildlife
Landscapes of Astonishing Diversity
On an area almost as large as Germany, Oman combines a geological and ecological diversity that is unique in the Arab world:
Hajar Mountains
The Al-Hajar Mountains stretch as a 700 km long mountain range from Musandam in the north to the east coast. Jebel Shams (3,009 m) is the highest peak. The mountains consist of ophiolite rock — oceanic crust that was uplifted during tectonic shifts. Geologists from all over the world make pilgrimages here because nowhere else is the seabed so visibly exposed on the surface.
Deserts
About 80% of Oman is desert — from the golden sand dunes of the Wahiba Sands to the endless gravel desert in the interior to the Rub al-Khali (Empty Quarter) on the border with Saudi Arabia — the largest sand desert in the world.
Wildlife
- Sea Turtles: Five of the seven species of sea turtles nest on Oman's coasts. Ras al Jinz is the most important nesting site for the Green Sea Turtle in the Indian Ocean
- Whales & Dolphins: Oman's coast is one of the best places in the world for whale watching: Humpback whales, blue whales, sperm whales, and over 20 species of dolphins. Especially off Musandam and Muscat, dolphin sightings are almost guaranteed
- Arabian Leopard: Extremely rare (estimated 200 animals worldwide), survives in the mountains of Dhofar. Sightings are virtually impossible, but knowing it is there makes the mountains magical
- Arabian Oryx: The elegant white antelope was almost extinct in the wild but survives thanks to breeding programs in the Jiddat al-Harasis (former UNESCO protected area)
- Frankincense Trees: The gnarled Boswellia sacra grow only in Dhofar and produce the most valuable frankincense in the world. In Wadi Dawkah (UNESCO World Heritage), hundreds of these sacred trees stand
- Flamingos: Thousands of flamingos overwinter in the lagoons around Muscat and Qurum — a surreal sight in a desert city
The Arabian Oryx — A Success Story
The story of the Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx) is one of the greatest conservation success stories in the world — and Oman played the leading role.
The elegant white antelope with long, straight horns was once widespread throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Uncontrolled hunting with modern weapons and off-road vehicles (from the 1950s) decimated it. In 1972, the last wild Arabian Oryx was shot in Oman. The species was extinct in the wild.
What happened next is remarkable:
- 1962: "Operation Oryx" — Biologists capture the last wild specimens and bring them to the Phoenix Zoo (Arizona). With only 9 animals, a breeding program begins
- 1982: The first captive-bred Oryx are reintroduced in the Jiddat al-Harasis (Oman) — guarded by Bedouin rangers
- 1994: The population grows to over 400 animals. UNESCO declares the area a World Heritage "Arabian Oryx Sanctuary"
- 2007: Setback — Poaching and habitat loss reduce the population. UNESCO revokes the World Heritage status (the only time in history)
- Today: Thanks to new protection programs, over 1,000 Arabian Oryx live in the wild on the Arabian Peninsula, several hundred of them in Oman
The chances of seeing an Arabian Oryx in the wild are slim — they live in the most remote desert areas. But in some nature reserves and on the drive through the Wahiba Sands, you might have the opportunity with luck. Their sight — snow-white fur against the red desert sand — is unforgettable.
Geology — Why Oman is Unique
For geologists, Oman is a sacred place. Nowhere else on Earth can what usually lies at the deepest seabed be so well studied on the surface. The reason:
Ophiolite — The Seabed on Land
The Hajar Mountains are largely composed of ophiolite rock — this is oceanic crust (normally 5–10 km below sea level) that has been pushed to the surface by tectonic shifts. The Semail Ophiolite in Oman is the largest and best-preserved ophiolite complex in the world, measuring 350 km in length and 40 km in width.
What this means: When you hike in the Hajar Mountains, you are literally walking on the former seabed. The greenish stones under your feet were 3,000 meters underwater 95 million years ago. Geologists and students from all over the world come here to see what they otherwise only find in textbooks.
Fossils on Jebel Harim
At the summit of Jebel Harim (2,087 m, Musandam), you will find fossils of marine animals — shells, corals, sea urchins — embedded in the rock. These mountains were once a coral reef. The idea that you are standing on the remains of a tropical ocean at 2,000 meters altitude is surreal.
The Bimmah Sinkhole
The circular hole with turquoise water was formed when an underground limestone cave collapsed. The water is a mix of freshwater (underground springs) and saltwater (the sea is only 600 m away), which explains the unreal color. Local legend says a star fell from the sky — hence the Arabic name "Hawiyat Najm" (Star Hole).
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