History of Portugal

Portugal is one of the oldest nation-states in Europe — its borders have remained almost unchanged since 1249. That alone is remarkable enough, but the country's history goes much deeper.

The Lusitanians, a Celtic-Iberian tribe, gave the region its ancient name: Lusitania. Their legendary leader Viriathus fiercely resisted the Romans for decades and was only defeated through betrayal. To this day, he is considered Portugal's first national hero. The Romans left a lasting impact on the country: roads, bridges (the Ponte Romana in Chaves still stands), the Latin language (from which Portuguese developed), and viticulture — wine has been cultivated in the Douro Valley for over 2,000 years.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Visigoths followed, and from 711, the Moors, who ruled southern Portugal for over 500 years. The Moorish rule left deep marks: The Algarve bears an Arabic name (al-Gharb, "the West"), place names like Alfama, Alcobaça, and Albufeira are of Arabic origin, and the famous Azulejos have their roots in Islamic tile art. The Moors also introduced almond trees, figs, and irrigation systems.

The Reconquista began in the north. In 1139, Afonso Henriques declared himself the first king of Portugal after the Battle of Ourique. He conquered Lisbon in 1147 with the help of Northern European crusaders on their way to the Holy Land. The Reconquista of Portugal ended in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve — almost 250 years before the Spanish. Thus, Portugal was the first state on the Iberian Peninsula to completely end Moorish rule.

The Golden Age of Discoveries (Idade dos Descobrimentos) is Portugal's greatest contribution to world history — and an era full of contradictions: groundbreaking courage and scientific progress on one hand, colonialism and the slave trade on the other.

Henry the Navigator

Infante Dom Henrique (1394–1460), known as Henry the Navigator, was the visionary behind it all. Although he hardly sailed himself, he founded a navigation school in Sagres in the Algarve, financed expeditions, and advanced the systematic exploration of the African coast. In 1415, Portugal conquered Ceuta in North Africa — the starting point for the largest colonial empire in history.

The Great Discoveries

The Portuguese changed the world map at a breathtaking pace:

• 1419/1420: Discovery of Madeira and the Azores
• 1434: Gil Eanes sails around the feared Cape Bojador
• 1488: Bartolomeu Dias rounds the Cape of Good Hope
• 1498: Vasco da Gama reaches India via the sea route — the most lucrative trade route in the world
• 1500: Pedro Álvares Cabral discovers Brazil
• 1519–1522: Ferdinand Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães) begins the first circumnavigation of the globe

A country with just one million inhabitants built a global empire that stretched from Brazil across Africa and India to Macau, Timor, and Japan. The Portuguese introduced the Japanese to Tempura (from "tempero", seasoning), the Indians to Vindaloo cuisine, and the world to the global spice trade.

The Dark Side

The Age of Discovery had a brutal downside: Portugal was significantly involved in the transatlantic slave trade and deported millions of people from Africa to Brazil and other colonies over centuries. This history is increasingly being critically examined in Portugal today but remains a sensitive topic.

Under King Manuel I. (1495–1521), Portugal reached its zenith. Spices from India — pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg — made Lisbon the richest city in Europe. The king commissioned magnificent buildings in the unique Manueline style: the Jerónimos Monastery in Belém, the Torre de Belém, and the Convent of Christ in Tomar. The Manueline style combines late Gothic with maritime motifs — ropes, anchors, corals, and exotic plants from the discoveries adorn portals and windows.

Wealth attracted envy. In 1580, the last Portuguese king of the Avis dynasty died, and Spain's Philip II. ascended the Portuguese throne. For 60 years, Portugal was united in a personal union with Spain (1580–1640) — a period felt as a national humiliation. It was not until December 1, 1640, that Portugal regained its independence in the "Restoration" under the House of Bragança. December 1 remains a national holiday to this day.

In the 18th century, gold from Brazil once again brought enormous wealth. King João V. had the gigantic palace-monastery complex of Mafra built — a baroque megalomania intended to rival Versailles. José Saramago's novel "The Memorial" (Memorial do Convento) masterfully depicts the construction.

However, the wealth was hardly invested in industry or education. Portugal remained economically dependent on its colonies — a weakness that would take its toll when the colonial empire began to crumble.

On November 1, 1755 — All Saints' Day, when the churches were full of worshippers — one of the most devastating earthquakes in history shook Lisbon. What followed was a triple catastrophe:

• The earthquake itself (estimated magnitude 8.5–9.0) destroyed large parts of the city within minutes
• The tsunami — waves up to 15 meters high flooded the waterfront and swept thousands to their deaths
• The fire — the overturned All Saints' candles set the debris ablaze; Lisbon burned for five days

Between 30,000 and 60,000 people died in Lisbon alone. Magnificent palaces, libraries, churches, and archives were destroyed. The royal library with 70,000 volumes, including original reports of the explorers, was lost.

Yet out of the catastrophe emerged something new. The Marquês de Pombal, Prime Minister under King José I, organized the reconstruction with remarkable efficiency. His famous saying: "Bury the dead, take care of the living." The Baixa Pombalina, the grid-patterned city center of Lisbon, was one of the first earthquake-resistant construction projects in the world — with flexible wooden structures (gaiola pombalina) that could absorb shocks.

The earthquake also had philosophical consequences: It shook the belief in a God-directed, benevolent world order. Voltaire addressed the catastrophe in "Candide" and questioned Leibniz's optimism. The Lisbon earthquake is considered the birth of modern seismology and a turning point in the European Enlightenment.

In 1910, a revolution overthrew the monarchy and proclaimed the republic. However, the young democracy was unstable — in 16 years, there were 45 governments and eight presidents. In 1926, the military staged a coup.

Salazar's Dictatorship (1932–1968)

António de Oliveira Salazar, an economics professor from Coimbra, became Prime Minister in 1932 and established the Estado Novo — an authoritarian, corporatist state modeled after fascism. Salazar ruled with an iron hand for 36 years: political opposition was pursued by the secret police PIDE, press freedom did not exist, and elections were a farce.

Portugal remained officially neutral during World War II but economically benefited from both sides. Lisbon became a hub for spies, refugees, and smugglers — an atmosphere that inspired films like "Casablanca." The Portuguese consul in Bordeaux, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, defied Salazar's orders in 1940 and saved over 30,000 people, including 10,000 Jews, by issuing visas.

While Western Europe prospered, Portugal stagnated under Salazar. The country was the poorest in Western Europe: the illiteracy rate was over 30%, infrastructure was backward, and millions of Portuguese emigrated — to France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Brazil. Even today, more Portuguese and their descendants live outside Portugal than in the country itself.

The Colonial War (1961–1974)

While other European powers gave up their colonies in the 1960s, Portugal clung to its colonial empire in Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau). The resulting Colonial War consumed up to 40% of the state budget and cost the lives of over 8,000 Portuguese soldiers. For an entire generation of young men, the war meant years of military service in Africa.

The Carnation Revolution (April 25, 1974)

On April 25, 1974, young officers of the Movimento das Forças Armadas (MFA), disillusioned by the senseless colonial war, staged a coup. The coup was almost bloodless — the signal to strike was the song "Grândola, Vila Morena" by José Afonso, played on the radio at 0:25. When the population took to the streets and placed red carnations in the soldiers' gun barrels, the dictatorship ended after 48 years.

April 25 is Portugal's most important holiday — the "Day of Freedom" (Dia da Liberdade). The carnation became a symbol of the peaceful revolution, and "Grândola, Vila Morena" is still sung at every commemoration. In Lisbon, the Museu do Aljube (in the former PIDE prison) impressively commemorates the dictatorship and resistance.

After the Carnation Revolution, turbulent years followed: nationalizations, political instability, and the return of around 800,000 Retornados (returnees from the former colonies, mainly Angola and Mozambique), who had to be integrated in a short time.

The EU accession in 1986 (together with Spain) was the decisive turning point. EU structural funds financed highways, bridges, schools, and hospitals. The Expo 98 in Lisbon (theme: The Oceans) transformed a neglected industrial area in the east of the city into the modern district of Parque das Nações — with the Oceanário, the Ponte Vasco da Gama (17 km, the longest bridge in Europe at the time of opening), and the Gare do Oriente by Santiago Calatrava.

Crisis and Recovery

The financial crisis of 2008–2014 hit Portugal hard. In 2011, the country had to accept a bailout of 78 billion euros. The austerity policy led to drastic cuts, mass unemployment (youth unemployment over 40%), and a new wave of emigration of young, well-educated Portuguese.

The recovery began in 2015 under the center-left government of António Costa, who combined austerity with social cushioning. Tourism exploded: Lisbon and Porto became European trend cities, Portugal won the Eurovision Song Contest 2017 (Salvador Sobral), the UEFA Euro 2016 (Cristiano Ronaldo), and was repeatedly awarded as the best travel destination in the world.

Today, Portugal faces new challenges: a housing crisis due to rising rents and vacation rentals (especially in Lisbon and Porto), climate change with devastating wildfires, and the question of what sustainable tourism can look like. At the same time, Portugal has established itself as a location for digital nomads and tech companies — the Web Summit in Lisbon is the largest tech conference in Europe.