Golden Age & Decline (1495–1755)

Under King Manuel I. (1495–1521), Portugal reached its zenith. Spices from India — pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg — made Lisbon the richest city in Europe. The king commissioned magnificent buildings in the unique Manueline style: the Jerónimos Monastery in Belém, the Torre de Belém, and the Convent of Christ in Tomar. The Manueline style combines late Gothic with maritime motifs — ropes, anchors, corals, and exotic plants from the discoveries adorn portals and windows.

Wealth attracted envy. In 1580, the last Portuguese king of the Avis dynasty died, and Spain's Philip II. ascended the Portuguese throne. For 60 years, Portugal was united in a personal union with Spain (1580–1640) — a period felt as a national humiliation. It was not until December 1, 1640, that Portugal regained its independence in the "Restoration" under the House of Bragança. December 1 remains a national holiday to this day.

In the 18th century, gold from Brazil once again brought enormous wealth. King João V. had the gigantic palace-monastery complex of Mafra built — a baroque megalomania intended to rival Versailles. José Saramago's novel "The Memorial" (Memorial do Convento) masterfully depicts the construction.

However, the wealth was hardly invested in industry or education. Portugal remained economically dependent on its colonies — a weakness that would take its toll when the colonial empire began to crumble.