History of Croatia

The oldest traces of human settlement in the area of present-day Croatia date back over 100,000 years — the famous Neanderthal of Krapina (discovered in 1899) is one of Europe's most important paleontological finds.

In antiquity, Illyrian tribes inhabited the eastern Adriatic coast. The Greeks founded colonies on the islands from the 4th century BC — Pharos (today Stari Grad on Hvar) and Issa (today Vis) were the most significant. The Stari Grad Plain on Hvar, the oldest preserved Greek land surveying system in the Mediterranean, is now a UNESCO World Heritage site.

The Romans conquered the region from 229 BC in several Illyrian wars. Under Augustus, the province of Dalmatia was established (named after the Illyrian tribe of the Delmatae). The Romans left behind spectacular structures: the Amphitheater in Pula (one of the six largest in the world), the Diocletian's Palace in Split (built 295-305 AD as the retirement residence of Emperor Diocletian, who was born in Salona near Split), the Temple of Augustus in Pula, and countless villas, roads, and aqueducts.

Diocletian (244-311) is the most important historical figure: born as the son of a slave in nearby Salona, he rose to become a Roman emperor, reformed the entire empire (Tetrarchy), and had the largest palace of the Roman world built for himself — today the heart of Split, where 3,000 people still live.

In the 7th century, the Croats (Hrvati) migrated — where exactly they came from is still disputed (probably from the area of present-day southern Poland/Western Ukraine). They founded two principalities: Dalmatian Croatia (coast) and Pannonian Croatia (inland).

The Croatian Kingdom (925-1102)

Tomislav became the first Croatian king in 925 — an event deeply ingrained in the national consciousness (his equestrian statue stands at the main train station in Zagreb). Medieval Croatia was an independent, powerful kingdom with its own church, laws, and a fleet that controlled the Adriatic. In 1102, the kingdom entered a personal union with Hungary (Pacta Conventa) — the beginning of 800 years of foreign rule.

The Republic of Ragusa (1358-1808)

An extraordinary exception: Dubrovnik (Latin Ragusa) was an independent trading republic for over 450 years — a city-state that skillfully navigated between the great powers of Venice, the Ottoman Empire, and Hungary through diplomacy. Ragusa was one of the wealthiest cities in the Mediterranean, with its own trading fleet that sailed as far as India. The republic abolished slave trade as early as 1416 — almost 400 years before Great Britain. The earthquake of 1667 almost completely destroyed the city; the baroque Dubrovnik we see today was built during the reconstruction.

Venetian Rule (15th-18th centuries)

While Dubrovnik remained independent, most of the Dalmatian coast and Istria came under Venetian control. The lion reliefs of the Lion of St. Mark can still be seen everywhere today — on city gates in Zadar, Šibenik, Trogir, Hvar, and Korčula. Venice brought architecture, administration, and the Italian language, which is still an official language in Istria today.

Ottoman Threat

From the 15th to the 18th century, Croatia was the "Bulwark of Christianity" (Antemurale Christianitatis) — a bastion against Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Military Frontier (Vojna Krajina) stretched across Croatia; here, the Habsburgs settled Serbian Orthodox refugees to defend the border — a decision that would contribute to the Croatian War 400 years later.

In 1527, the Croatian nobility elected Ferdinand I of Habsburg as king — the beginning of almost 400 years of Habsburg rule. Croatia formally retained its own parliament (Sabor) and a certain degree of autonomy but was increasingly subject to the interests of Vienna and Budapest.

The Illyrian Movement (1830s-1840s) under Ljudevit Gaj was the first national revival movement: the Croatian language was standardized, newspapers and cultural institutions were founded, and more autonomy was demanded. Zagreb became the cultural center — theaters, universities, and the Academy of Sciences were established during this time.

Under Austria-Hungary (1867-1918), the coast experienced a boom: Opatija became a fashionable Austro-Hungarian seaside resort (the first Riviera of the monarchy), Pula the main naval port, and the railway connected Zagreb with Vienna and Budapest. Many of the magnificent buildings in Zagreb, Opatija, and Rijeka date from this era.

After the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, Croatia became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (from 1929: Kingdom of Yugoslavia). Serbian dominance led to growing discontent — and to one of the darkest periods in Croatian history.

World War II (1941-1945)

After the occupation of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers in 1941, the Nazis established the "Independent State of Croatia" (NDH) under the fascist Ustaša movement of Ante Pavelić. The regime committed horrific crimes: the Jasenovac concentration camp was the largest Axis-operated concentration camp in Southeast Europe. Tens of thousands of Serbs, Jews, Roma, and political opponents were murdered. This chapter remains a sensitive topic and strains Serbian-Croatian relations to this day.

At the same time, the Partisans under Josip Broz Tito (half Croatian, half Slovenian) fought against the occupation — the only resistance movement in Europe that largely liberated its own country.

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945-1991)

Tito created a unique model: communist but non-aligned. Yugoslavia was neither in the Warsaw Pact nor NATO, maintained relations with both sides, and became a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement. Croatia was one of six constituent republics.

The Tito era was crucial for tourism: the Adriatic coast was opened to Western tourists, and mass tourism began in the 1960s. Hotels, campsites, and nudist resorts (Yugoslavia was a nudist pioneer!) sprang up from Istria to Dubrovnik. Tito's personal residence on the Brijuni Islands hosted state guests from Fidel Castro to Sophia Loren.

After Tito's death in 1980, the system began to crumble: the economic crisis, growing Serbian nationalism under Milošević, and the wave of democratization in Eastern Europe led to the inevitable dissolution.

On June 25, 1991, Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia — on the same day as Slovenia. What followed were four years of war that changed the country forever.

Background

About 12% of the Croatian population were ethnic Serbs, mainly living in the former military frontier (Krajina). Under the influence of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević and the propaganda of a "Greater Serbia," the Krajina Serbs declared their own "Republic" and began expelling the Croatian population. The Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) de facto supported the Serbian troops.

Vukovar (1991)

The Battle of Vukovar (August–November 1991) became a symbol of the war: for 87 days, poorly armed Croatian troops and civilians defended the eastern Slavonian town against a massive siege. After the fall of the city on November 18, Serbian paramilitaries committed the Ovčara massacre — 264 prisoners of war and civilians were murdered. Vukovar was 80% destroyed and remains a divided city to this day.

Siege of Dubrovnik (1991-1992)

The bombing of the UNESCO World Heritage city Dubrovnik by the JNA from October 1991 shocked the world. Over 2,000 shells hit the old town; 68% of all buildings were damaged. The images of the burning "Pearl of the Adriatic" significantly contributed to international sympathy for Croatia. In the "War Photo Limited" museum in Dubrovnik, you can vividly relive this time.

Operation Storm (1995)

The Operation Oluja (Storm) from August 4-7, 1995, ended the war militarily: in just 84 hours, the Croatian army recaptured the entire Krajina. It was the largest military ground offensive in Europe since World War II. For Croats, the "Day of Victory" (August 5) is a national holiday; for the ~200,000 fleeing Krajina Serbs, it is a day of mourning.

Balance

The war claimed about 20,000 lives (including ~13,500 Croats and ~6,500 Serbs), 300,000 were displaced, and a third of the country was temporarily occupied. Some areas are still mined today — warning signs in the hinterland should be taken seriously.

After the war, Croatia had to practically rebuild its land and economy. Under President Franjo Tuđman (1990-1999), politics were characterized by nationalism. After his death, a phase of democratization and EU rapprochement began.

The most important milestones:

• 2009: NATO membership
• 2013: EU membership (28th member state)
• 2018: World Cup final in football (silver medal) — a moment that united the entire country
• 2022: Again World Cup semi-final + bronze medal
• January 1, 2023: Double milestone — accession to the Schengen Area (no more border controls) AND the Eurozone (Euro replaces Kuna). A blessing for tourists: no currency exchange, no border queues
• 2024: The Pelješac Bridge connects the south of Croatia for the first time without detour through Bosnia

Today, Croatia is a stable EU state with an economy heavily dependent on tourism (about 20% of GDP). However, the population is shrinking alarmingly — many young Croatians emigrate to Ireland, Germany, or Austria (EU freedom of movement). From 4.4 million inhabitants in 1991, only ~3.86 million remain.